The ancient site of Karnak is one of the most impressive places to visit in Egypt. Situated just a short distance from the Nile, this enormous temple complex was once considered to be the spiritual center of Thebes. With its presence carved into tall columns and sprawling courtyards, this hallowed location has been a place of devotion to deities like Amun-Ra, Montu, and Mut for more than 3,000 years. The biggest and most important part of Karnak is a massive 30-hectare area built to honor the sun god Amun-Ra.
Archaeologists have been studying the ruins of Karnak for a century and a half, but the origins of the temple have remained unknown. There is still a great deal of mystery surrounding the early beginnings of the temple, particularly in relation to the shifting sands, and ancient twists and turns of the Nile. In what ways did the river have an impact on this sacred location? When did people first begin to settle in this area? In a methodical manner, the answers are gradually becoming more apparent.
In a compelling new study published in Antiquity, scientists have finally mapped the ancient landscape beneath Karnak. Under the leadership of Angus Graham from Uppsala University, and with the assistance of colleagues from the University of Southampton, the group successfully drilled 61 sediment cores, some of which were drilled to depths of more than 11 meters (36 ft).
The tens of thousands of ceramic fragments that were packed inside these underground time capsules have helped archaeologists date the layers and track the evolution of the temple's surroundings over the course of millennia. This has allowed them to determine the age of the temple and make this the most comprehensive geoarchaeological survey of Egypt's Karnak Temple.
Karnak was constructed on a fluvial terrace segment with the appearance of a natural platform, and it was surrounded by ancient Nile channels, according to the findings of researchers. It is possible that this setting, which resembled an island, was meant to represent the "primeval mound" from Egyptian creation myths. This mound was the first land to emerge from the waters of chaos when the world was first created.
A number of specialized tools were used by the researchers to drill deep and extract sediments, uncovering Karnak's buried history. At intervals of 10 cm (3.9 in), they sifted through these layers in the field, separating the ceramic pieces from the rest of the debris.
Each ceramic fragment was matched to a Karnak-specific timeline, helping archaeologists build detailed "chronostratigraphies", or layer-by-layer histories of the site.
Beneath Karnak's towering temples lies a sandy story. Researchers found that the entire zone rests on layers of fine to medium sand: smooth, well-organized, and stacked like pages in a book. These sediments tell a tale of ancient river channels that flowed through the area, although not all at once.
In the eastern parts of Karnak and in scattered spots around the temple, the ground is primarily composed of silt – a fine, soft soil. These silts were left behind when ancient river channels filled up or when floodwaters slowed down and gently dropped tiny particles. Above these natural layers lie meters of cultural debris: materials that describe the archaeology of Karnak.
However, before 2520 BCE, this sacred ground was not a suitable location for settlement. It became inhospitable due to the rapid flooding of the Nile. After some time had passed, during the Old Kingdom of Egypt, the waters became calm enough for people to stay. Fragments of pottery dating back to approximately between 2305 and 1980 BCE provide evidence of this shift, which marks the beginning of Karnak's human history.
"This new research provides unprecedented detail on the evolution of Karnak Temple, from a small island to one of the defining institutions of Ancient Egypt," said the study's lead author, Ben Pennington.
Corresponding author Kristian Strutt added, "The age of Karnak Temple has been hotly contested in archaeological circles, but our new evidence places a temporal constraint on its earliest occupation and construction."
In a twist that surprised researchers, the eastern Nile channel near Karnak, once thought to be minor, turned out to be more clearly defined, and possibly even larger than the western one archaeologists had long studied.
"The river channels surrounding the site shaped how the temple could develop and where, with new construction taking place on top of old rivers as they silted up," explained Mr Dominic Barker, a Technician in Archaeology at the University of Southampton.
“We also see how Ancient Egyptians shaped the river itself, through the dumping of sands from the desert into channels, possibly to provide new land for building, for example."
The findings suggest Karnak's location wasn't just practical; it was profoundly symbolic.
Old Kingdom texts describe the creator god emerging from a lake. Karnak's island is the only known spot in the region that fits this description, leading researchers to believe its placement was a deliberate echo of divine beginnings.
"It's tempting to suggest the Theban elites chose Karnak's location for the dwelling place of a new form of the creator god, 'Ra-Amun', as it fitted the cosmogonical scene of high ground emerging from surrounding water," said Pennington.
Armed with permission to study the entire Luxor floodplain, the research team is now casting a wider net. They are mapping the connections between rivers, landforms, and sacred spaces while investigating other significant locations throughout Egypt's historic religious capital.
The new study was published in the journal Antiquity.
Source: University of Southampton
